Research on Volunteering

Steven Farmer and Donald Fedor have taken a look at factors which make volunteers decide to continue and increase their contribution of volunteer time and effort to a particular organization. This issue is a serious one to effective involvement of volunteers, since the motivation of volunteers may be negatively affected by asking for too little involvement (thus creating a sense in a volunteer that their talents and time aren't being well used) or too much (thus creating both a sense of being overworked and a sense that the contribution they are making isn't "enough").

Research for the report, Flying Under the Radar: The Significant Work of All-Volunteer Organizations, was conducted in 1999 in the San Francisco service area of CompassPoint by Cristina Chan, M.P.P., and Sonali Rammohan, C.P.A. Leadership for the study was provided by Jan Masaoka, Executive Director of CompassPoint. I first became aware of the study when I attended a workshop presented by Cristina and Sonali at the 1999 National Community Service Conference. It was very telling that, in a conference of nearly 2,800 participants, there were only about a dozen attendees at this particular workshop. Obviously, not many all-volunteer group representatives were at the conference! When I was discussing the study with CompassPoint Executive Director Jan Masaoka, she used a term that to me describes why the health and well being of all-volunteer groups are so vitally important for our consideration. She called the sub-sector a "fragile ecology" that is little understood and very much under-supported by any of the primary sectors of modern life. This is despite the fact that these groups really create the rich fabric of what we call "community" and bring people together in so many ways. 

Directors of volunteer programs tend to view volunteering from a management perspective, mainly because they're responsible for effectively managing people and resources. Volunteering, however, can be viewed from the perspective of other disciplines as well and this article is a useful reminder that looking at something from all directions is more enlightening than simply examining one.

Ethnology (the discipline, not the magazine of that name) is "the science which treats of races and people, and of their relations to one another, their distinctive physical and other characteristics." It is practiced by sociologists and anthropologists and you've probably been exposed to at least some of it through the works of people such as Margaret Mead. Ethnology tends to examine the relationships among individuals and their culture, with some emphasis on how people fit into that culture. One of the tenets of ethnology is that cultures tend to develop models of appropriate roles for its members, with some classic examples being the shaman, the warrior, the clan mother, etc.

Lynne Nakano's article examines volunteering in a residential neighborhood outside of Yokohama, Japan.

Marc Musick and John Wilson are doing some of the most interesting and useful studies of volunteer behavior today, and this current article, co-written with William Bynum, is no exception. In what is both a review of available literature and new research of their own, the authors provide a thorough and useful look at whether and how volunteering by African-Americans differs from volunteering by whites.

Among their findings and conclusions (and covering both the literature review and their own additional research):

1. "...(F)or all kinds of volunteering except the entirely secular, black volunteering is more influenced by church attendance than is white volunteering, a reflection of the more prominent role of the black church in its community...(and) among volunteers for secular activities, church attendance has a negative effect on volunteering, but only for whites."
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   • Read more about Race and Formal Volunteering: The Differential Effects of Class and Religion

This article outlines several volunteer-related research projects currently underway in the United Kingdom, initiated and funded by the government. There are as yet no findings to report, but e-Volunteerism feels the article will be useful to our readers as a model for how government research can support volunteer efforts. This is quite connected to the Points of View topic that appears elsewhere in this issue. The questions raised toward the end of the article for "future study" are provocative and we hope they will start other researchers thinking about additional ways to study issues of direct usefulness to practitioners. We will, of course, keep readers informed as the reports promised below become available.

The Saguaro Seminar is a program of Harvard University that builds on the work of Robert Putnam (author of Bowling Alone: Collapse and Revival of the American Community). One of its initial activities was to conduct this national survey of almost 30,000 people, released in February 2001. This survey is the largest investigation of civic involvement ever conducted in America. The study examines a number of areas of social capital formation, including religious engagement, political and civic participation, levels of trust, giving and volunteering, and informal socializing.

Key findings of the survey follow in this article.

Australia has been a hotbed of volunteering activity for the past few years and this report is an indication of the increasing seriousness with which the Australian government is attempting to involve itself in promoting volunteering. The report was produced as part of the 2001 International Year of Volunteers and intends to show ways in which organizations can involve the impending Baby Boom population which is approaching retirement in many countries.

The growing trend called "volunteer vacationing" reflects the increase in short-term and family volunteerism reported in national surveys in the United States. An increasing number of organizations, public and private, cater to these volunteers with packaged service trips. Drawing on current research into the characteristics of successful volunteer programs, this article offers some preliminary hypotheses about the motivations of volunteer vacationers, the benefits and drawbacks of the "volunteer vacationer" model, and the ways in which programs can take advantage of this trend. Organizations welcoming volunteer vacationers have surmounted some difficulties shared by many volunteer programs, including how to balance a volunteer's need for intrinsic and extrinsic rewards, how to train and manage large numbers of short-term workers, and how to minimize staff resistance in the process. We would be well served by learning more about these effective programs. The rewards may include healthy retention rates among volunteers who are willing to pay handsomely for the experience.

It is almost preordained that keynote speakers and casual essayists, when asked to address the topic of volunteering in the United States, will eventually quote Alexis de Tocqueville, the famous Frenchman who keenly observed American life and then wrote Democracy in America, published in France in 1835 and 1840. Ask anyone what he said, and you'll hear some variation of "America is a nation of joiners." Since de Tocqueville wrote in French, whether or not he actually used this phrase may be buried in translation, but his extensive commentary on early nineteenth century life is absorbing reading even in the 21st century.

I first read Democracy in America in 1976 when Katie Noyes Campbell and I were researching the first edition of By the People: A History of Americans as Volunteers. I was impressed then and am even more impressed today. In rereading the book to prepare for this "Voices from the Past" article, I was struck by how clairvoyant many of de Tocqueville's observations seem. If you are so inclined, I urge you to read -- even skim -- Democracy in America. Among other things, it delineates why there are similarities and differences in civic participation between the United States and various countries in Europe. It is not an uncritical work, either. As you'll see below, de Tocqueville tried to be as objective as possible.

Until recently there was no agency within the UK focusing specifically on volunteering research and its connection to policy and practice. Volunteering sometimes appeared on the curricula of the various organisational-focused voluntary sector courses. But it was very much a minority subject and minimal attempt was made to relate what little academic study there was to the practical needs of policy makers and practitioners.

The Institute for Volunteering Established to Fill the Research Gap
It was thus most timely that in 1997 The Institute for Volunteering Research was established to fill this gap. The Institute was created by Dr. Justin Davis Smith, who was then Director of Research at the National Centre for Volunteering. Much good research had already been done by the National Centre, but it was felt that a separate agency was required to extend the range of knowledge about volunteering and to integrate practically focused research with academic insights.